Exosome as Nanoscale Vesicles | Pancreatic Cancer Research

Exosome as Nanoscale Vesicles | Pancreatic Cancer Research Conceptual Exosome are nanoscale vesicles that are discharged from malignancy cells, assuming a significant job in the microenvironment of dangerous tumor cells.6,8 The exosomal vesicles (EV) add to the movement and development of the tumor, and can be focused on utilizing gold nanoparticles (GNP).1,6,7 The exosomes are separated from the blood plasma, and with their dependability in organic liquids, they can be focused on and hindered utilizing GNP. The GNP will restrain the disease cell, and will stop tumor development and production.â Using proteomic and quantitative strategies, the exosome EphA2, indicated the most noteworthy discovery of particularity and affectability in pancreatic disease patients.1,2,4,8 Further tests affirmed that EphA2-EV has potential in early recognition for pancreatic disease, because of the levels explicitness and affectability being higher in contrast with pancreatitis patients and the control patients.1 Catchphrases: Biomarkers, Exosome, Pancreatic malignancy, Nanoparticle, Proteomics, Vesicles, Plasma, Antibody Presentation Pancreatic malignancy, is immensely terminal, with an endurance pace of under 5%.â Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC), is the most widely recognized type of exocrine pancreatic disease, representing around 95% of pancreatic disease cases.10 PDAC is a quiet malignancy, and with the absence of testing, the requirement for novel biomarkers to help in early location is imperative.â With no substantial early discovery techniques, and no side effects of beginning time PDAC, the disease will advance quickly all through the body before it is detected.â There is have to discover a biomarker, supporting in the early recognition PDAC, so a treatment can be given to prevent the disease from progressing.â The ebb and flow tumor biomarker, CA19-9, isn't solid in early identification because of erroneously raised consequences of maladies other than PDAC.10 Ongoing investigations recommend that exosomes, a nanovesicle, has a high potential as the future biomarker of PDAC, because of the steadiness and recognition affectability in human blood plasma.1,2,4,8 Malicious exosomes, are hidden by malignant growth cells, screening the significance in tumor development and progression.7 Studies tell the best way to upgrade a strategy, to detach exosomes from the blood plasma, to additionally aid biomarker discovery.â concerning breaking down exosomes as a potential biomarker, exosomes need to cleansed and segregated with differential centrifugation matched with ultracentrifugation (UC). Another procedure utilized, is fondness filtration of the exosomal layer antigens utilizing thickness inclination (DG) centrifugation, isolating the vesicles dependent on their density.8 A training should be directed, to sanitize exosomes, from just a little volume of blood plasma. With contemplates being led on the security in liquids of flowing exosomes, it very well may be affirmed that these nanovesicles have the capacity of focusing to take-up to thwart or defer tumor development.â With the size of the exosomes running from 40 100 nm, they are recognized for tumor microenvironment.â Exosomes, a potential biomarker, for the early recognition of PDAC, are likewise being concentrated as possible nanocarriers to target malignancy cells and deferring tumor growth.1,7,8 The most widely recognized nanocarrier being considered is the gold nanoparticle (GNP), because of its imaging, diagnostics, and treatment abilities.â The GNP can be effectively integrated by means of the citrate decrease, which is the reason is has potential in clinical theranostics.7 Extracellular vesicles (EV), are discharged into extracellular space, they are associated with tumor commencement, movement just as metastasis.â EVs can be utilized as non-obtrusive biomarkers, however the current contemplated techniques are tedious concerning EV isolation.1,7,8 The EV film markers which are a piece of the tetraspanin family, are CD9, CD63, and CD81, separately, and a measure exhibits comparative features.6 A nanoparticle EV examine, will be caught by an EV-explicit counter acting agent with the double authoritative of EV, utilizing 2 nanoparticle probes.â The 2 nanoparticle tests, will deliver a plasmon, advancing an expansion in affectability and particularity for the disclosure of an exosomal biomarker.â Ephrin type A receptor 2 (EphA2), has as of late been distinguished as a biomarker, of the tumor inferred pancreatic cell line, and improved on EV.1 EphA2, shows overexpression, increments in vitro intrusiveness and anoikis obstruction in pancreatic disea se cell lines.1 An ongoing report has been led with sound control patients, pancreatitis patients just as pancreatic malignant growth patients, with the utilization of nanoplasmon-upgraded dissipating (nPES) test a quick, touchy, and explicit strategy in biomarker discovery. Show Tumor Markers in Pancreatic Cancer Carcinoembryonic Antigen CEA CEA, is a glycoprotein, that is estimated in a typical blood test utilized for testing patients with malignant growth, including pancreatic cancer.â This will quantify the measure of the CEA protein that is in the blood of a patient who may have disease, and the CEA levels can be utilized to decide if treatment is working or if the disease is spreading.â A CEA level of 5 ng/mL, is viewed as an ordinary degree of this protein, however there are a few conditions that can change the degrees of the CEA in your blood, which is the reason this is anything but a legitimate biomarker in the recognition of pancreatic cancer.5 CEA testing can be helpful concerning repetitive colon malignancy also checking whether treatment is successful.â Levels of CEA can be raised because of smoking, just as in different maladies, for example, Crohns disease.â Due to the shakiness of CEA levels in disease, this blood test affirms that CEA is certainly not a steady biomarker for the early discovery of pancreatic malignancy. CEA is relied upon to be matched with different biomarkers, for early identification reasons.â When combined with CA19-9, there is an expansion in location for affectability and particularity, demonstrating an improvement in maladies including pancreatitis just as pancreatic pseudocyst.â Despite the improved outcomes for pancreatic infections, CEA is as yet not substantial for the discovery of pancreatic malignant growth, in any event, when it is combined with another marker, for example, CA19-9.5 Starch Antigen CA19-9 Starch antigen (CA19-9) was found in 1981, and is viewed as a sialyl lewis a (sLea).9 CA19-9 is found on a superficial level malignant growth cell, communicated as a glycolipid and an O connected glycoprotein, and is identified with the Lewis blood bunch antigens.3â Patients with Le (alpha beta +) or Le (alpha + beta - ) blood gathering, express degrees of CA19-9 in their blood, while roughly 5 10% of patients with Le (alpha beta - ) blood bunch don't communicate CA19-9, restricting the utilization as a legitimate biomarker.9 Due to the low, and questionable affectability of CA19-9, it is a poor mediator of PDAC, along these lines it's anything but an esteemed biomarker. CA19-9 can't separate between generous, forerunner sores and threatening conditions in PDAC patients, and it gives raised outcomes in numerous other gastrointestinal cancers.3â This blood test can show raised CA19-9 levels in patients with other non-malignant growth sicknesses including pancreatitis and cirrhosis.3,9 The CA19-9 blood test can be useful concerning knowing whether a pancreatic tumor is discharging it, and to pass judgment on the productivity of treatment, and search for pancreatic disease recurrence.â A sound patient will have a CA19-9 degree of 0 37 U/mL, in this way with expanding levels of CA19-9, this could demonstrate tumor growth.3 For increasingly precise outcomes, a PDAC marker should be found and combined with CA19-9, to expand the affectability and particularity in early detection.â With CA19-9 as the main marker, examines show it was just raised in 50 75% of patients having PDAC, affirming that isn't predictable as a biomarker and ought not be utilized in analytic testing.3,9 Expressing raised levels in different infections, for example, benevolent jaundice, pancreatitis, and ovarian malignant growth, affirms the absence of consistency utilizing the CA19-9 marker and that it can't be utilized as an exact sign of early pancreatic disease detection.3 Rising Biomarkers With the nonappearance of unwavering quality utilizing the ebb and flow PDAC biomarker, C19-9, it is a need to find a biomarker with improved affectability also explicitness for the early discovery of PDAC. Recent examinations recommend, that exosomes can be identified in body liquid, for example, blood, and they have potential as ailment biomarkers.â Exosomes, found in blood plasma, should be gathered from solid patients to get individual and pooled samples.â The gathered blood plasma, should be isolated, by centrifugation, to detach the exosomes for additional proteomic and quantitative studies.8 Seclusion Methods Seclusion of exosomes utilizing the UC technique, includes ordinary human plasma, and weakening it with PBS. The example will be differentially centrifuged, to annihilate cell flotsam and jetsam, which is trailed by UC. The ensuing pellet, is washed in PBS, and separated, and the filtrate was ultracentrifuged.â The subsequent exosomal pellet, utilized for the investigation, will be resuspended in PBS.8 Utilizing the EI segregation strategy, the plasma, is weakened in PBS and centrifuged.â The supernant is sifted, and the filtrate will be hatched utilizing a blocking agent.â A microcolumn was put in attractive separators, where the section was flushed with washing solution.â Beads were bound to the exosome, and were applied to the attractive column.â The segment will be washed with washing arrangement, and the insusceptible caught exosomes were recuperated by expelling them from the segment and setting them in an assortment tube.â The exosome bound microbeads are washed to elute the exosomes, and centrifuged to get the exosomal pellet.â The exosomal pellet will be resuspended in PBS.8 Ultimately, detachment utilizing DG strategy, included the exosomal pellet that was gotten from UC just as would be expected blood plasma that was layered on iodixan

Animal Rights Essays (456 words) - Animal Testing, Animal Welfare

Basic entitlements Basic entitlements As Doctor Zola-Morgan expressed in a discourse to creature right activists, I've seen the effect of the basic entitlements development. I accept this is an assault on study of the most noticeably awful kind. On the off chance that we permit it to win it will return us to the dim ages. A lot of people in general has come to think of clinical specialists as tormenters as opposed to healers. The great is neglected and the awful is abused. Albeit numerous individuals feel that creature examine is ethically off-base, creature research should proceed in light of the fact that it is basic to proceeded with progress in human wellbeing and options to look into creatures are not accessible. Basic entitlements activists feel that creature look into is indecent. They do not consider where to be as individuals see or feel that we are the predominant species. They frequently state that examination with creatures causes serious agony what's more, that many research creatures are mishandled. The activists don't feel the need to get the creatures through such torment. A significant number of the investigations are repeated likewise which makes an unneeded interest for creatures perform tests. Trials which have just been demonstrated are as yet being explored different avenues regarding. In any case, creature explore is an essential piece of the present society when considering how much advancement we have picked up in human wellbeing with the utilization of creature experimentation. To date some forty-one Nobel prizes have been granted to researchers whose accomplishments relied upon lab creatures. Immunizations against polio, diphtheria, mumps, measles, rubella, and smallpox would not have been conceivable without such examinations. There additionally would not be such significant strategies, for example, open heart medical procedure, mind medical procedure, coronary detour, microsurgery to re-appended appendages, organ transplants, and adjustment of inborn heart absconds. The rundown goes on about the clinical propels that necessary creature look into. Insulin to control diabetes and meds significant in the administration of asthma, epilepsy, joint inflammation, ulcers, and hypertensions are a couple of additional to add to the rundown. To take creature look into away would likewise be to stop our general public's progression of more methodology and more meds to upgrade the better living of people. Moreover, there are no options in contrast to creature experimentation that can give similar outcomes that it can. In certain exploration examinations, cell, tissue, organ societies, and PC models can be utilized in any event in the fundamental periods of the examination. Nonetheless, in numerous exploratory circumstances, culture strategies and PC models don't catch the physiological unpredictability of the entire creature. A few instances of where creatures are fundamental in examine incorporate the advancement of an immunization against HIV and improvement of strategies to soothe mental pressure and tension. These difficulties must be tended to by inquire about with creatures. PC models and societies can't get the entire body impact of an test. People are the main options in contrast to creatures for this and when confronted with this other option, the vast majority incline toward the utilization on creatures as the inquire about model. Human studies

Advice from Graduating Seniors

Advice from Graduating Seniors Orientation has begun. Convocation starts in less than an hour, where the Class of 2021 will gather and President Reif will give a welcoming address. At that time, the Class of 2021 will officially be freshmen. MIT can be overwhelming will all the advice you hear left and right. But I think the advice that has helped me the most is the advice from upperclassmen. So I asked some of my closest friends who were graduating if they had any advice they wanted to give to the upcoming class. Advice from Graduating Seniors John P. 17  MIT is a great opportunity for personal growth, and a big part of that is understanding your limits. Find your breaking point, and learn how to make time for yourself in order to recover. Trust me: Youre better off learning to balance ambition and happiness. I spent a semester burned out because it took me a long time to learn this balancing act. Focus on it early. Andres A. 17 Try to find a way to serve the MIT community. Not only will you meet amazing people along the way, but you will grow in ways that are not possible in a classroom or lab setting. Isaac G. 17 Dont be afraid to put more on your plate than you think you can handle during P/NR its how I exposed myself to a lot of things at MIT I wouldnt have found otherwise! However, at the same time, never do something just because it fills your resume or you think your calendar is looking a little too bare. Try to figure out what you enjoy doing, and dive headfirst into that. Your time here will come to an end before you know it, and youll invariably look back and wish you had spent more time doing this or taken that class with so-and-so professor. Might as well do what you actually enjoy :) Rosé D. 17 YOPNRO You only pass/no record once. Juan H. 17 Use a monitor while doing work or studying. Being able to type while reading on a different screens did wonders for my productivity. I wish someone had told me sooner. David D. 17 Youre coming to MIT, one of the best universities in the world. This adventure will give you unprecedented and unparalleled opportunities over the next four years as long as you go out and actively seek them. I cant encourage you enough to find programs, positions, and initiatives that sound interesting to you even if they do not have a place in your original plan. Some of my most transformative and eye-opening experiences have been things I never imagined I could or would do before as an incoming freshman. Paul K. 17 I quickly found that my favorite thing about MIT was the people. From friends to PSET and explore Boston with, to professors and UROP supervisors to learn from, I found a lot to gain from getting to know as many people as possible. I also quickly grew comfortable with the fact that I didnt know much and was more ready to ask for help. Im thankful for the community I am now a part of. Martin M. 17 Focus on getting educated. Learn to talk. models for thinking . Use your time at MIT effectively so that the world is happy you were brought here and when you leave youre a mental heavyweight/champion in your art. Think of MIT as your training period. And realize that you have a certain perspective, and type of brain to succeed in a tech field but maybe not the field you originally thought you would be good at. TLDR; Focus on getting competent and building excellence in something not everyone can do that matters. Anonymous  Dont be afraid to ask for help: office hours, staying after class to chat with the professor and tutoring services are among the many resources MIT offers to get the little bit of extra help on difficult material. Look into the tech areas that are changing the most (eg Blockchain, CRISPR, Deep Learning, etc) and research that is only happening at MIT. So when you leave MIT you have an edge on what the world is going to be giving you a competitive advantage. I learned a lot from my FSILG (consider joining one), and at times that knowledge has been more useful that what I learned in classes. Use the best tools at your disposal when learning (When studying concepts go to youtube for a visualization, or to watch a significant person in the field talk about it) 5) Get a Video Speed Controller plugin for Chrome (you can watch at 1- 4x speed) (It saves a lot of time and allows you to iterate on material faster) Focus on doing things a semester at a time (dont overload, and if you get overloaded drop commitments early). You have time to do everything you want to do, just not in a semester. Erick P. 17 Youll grow a lot during your time here, but some things will never change.

The Great Development Of Science And People s Interest

Due to the great development of science and people’s interest in astronomy,â€Å"Einstein’s general theory of relativity allows for the possibility that we could warp space-time so much that you could go off in a rocket and return before you set out† (Hawking). The access to internet allowed many people to gain huge amount of information and knowledge easily, including astronomy. Because of IT development, many people gain knowledge and found interest in the most mystical place, the space. Nowadays, movies about space and time traveling are consistently made into a hit film. For example, the movie â€Å"Interstellar† by Christopher Nolan, became famous for realistic science-fiction throughout the world. In the movie, it shows about Wormholes, Einstein s Theory, how gravity changes time and the success of time-travel and space-travel. The knowledge and interest of time-traveling is becoming the world interest and the time-traveling can be explained through study of general information, possible breakthroughs and the effect it will bring to society. The general information can be divided to history and Einstein’s theory of relativity. To know about the time travel, first you have to know about Einstein’s theory of relativity. The theory contains lot of information about space, time, mass, energy and gravity. One of them is â€Å"the closer you get to the speed of light the slower time moves for you in comparison to someone that is not moving at all† (Einstein), and it has been proved to beShow MoreRelatedThe Chinese Communist Revolution Was A Negative Impact On The Political And Economic Development Of China1393 Words   |  6 PagesThe Chinese Communist Revolution had a negative impact on the political and economic development of China. It also had a positive and negative impact on the social development in China. 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Nowadays, education has turned into a essential requirement for people to attain success in their life as well as for the improvement of their country. People are the real wealth of their country. Education can be achieved in schools, colleges and

Effect Of Citizen Police Academies On Community...

The Effect of Citizen Police Academies on Community Relationships with the Police Background Over the past several years, there have been several high-profile police-involved shootings, and the justification behind the shooting has been questioned. Several of these shootings have resulted in a subsequent criminal conviction involving some form of a homicide charge for the police officer involved. This has created a great division between those who support and those who oppose the police. Police agencies and community leaders have sought to repair this relationship, and citizen police academies are one potential avenue. In the past, as a move to try and improve these police—community relations, police departments all over the country implemented citizen police academies, or CPAs. These were initially implemented during the beginning of the community-oriented policing era, and the first department in the US to have one was the Orlando Police Department in 1985 (Lee, 2016). Since then, CPAs popularity has grown nationally, and police departments all over the county have them. Somewhere between 15 and 20 percent of agencies have CPAs, and they are far more common among those who serve larger, metropolitan areas (Lee, 2016). CPAs teach participants the details of the various functions of the police, including law, patrol techniques, use of force, self-defense, firearms, SWAT, and crime prevention (Brewster, Stoloff, Sanders, 2005). These CPAs have theShow MoreRelatedThe International Association Of Chiefs Of Police Essay1439 Words   |  6 PagesAssociation of Chiefs of Police (IACP ) defines the use of force as â€Å"the amount of effort required by police to compel compliance by an unwilling subject† and â€Å"whether the police officer reasonably believed that such force was necessary to accomplish a legitimate police purpose.† Based on a study done in various US cities, excessive force â€Å"is typically but not necessarily associated with more severe forms of force that could or do result in injury or death.† Recent prominent cases of police violence includeRead MoreThe Solutions Offered Here Will Not Be Without Barriers And Issues898 Words   |  4 Pagesparties involved. As the police plan to participate and attend more community meeting they must also understand that they will be addressing more citizen complaints and concerns. 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Why The Stonewall Riots Became A Turning Point For The...

Until the last half of the 20th century, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender individuals were victims of discrimination in American society and in statutory laws, which limited their basic rights. On the night of June 28, 1969, police raided the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York’s Greenwich Village, and arrested three drag queens by using excessive force. Bar patrons and spectators, tired of police oppression, stood up and fought back. This was the first major protest based on equal rights for homosexuals. The Stonewall Riots became a turning point for the homosexual community in the United States sparking the beginning of the gay rights movement, and encouraged lesbian, gay, bisexual and transsexual, or LGBT, to fight for their rights. In the 1950s, the American Psychiatric Association characterized homosexuality as a â€Å"sociopathic personality disorder†(Haggerty, 713), in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and it was mentioned as an example of â€Å"sexual deviations,† which mean a sexual practice considered morally wrong and legally prohibited. After homosexual were determined as â€Å"sociopathic personality disorder† discrimination against them increased. The federal government banned the employment of homosexuals in 1953 by Eisenhower who signed the Executive Order 10450 (Chauncey, George, Nancy), which insisted in the dismissal of all federal employees who were homosexual. Most of the state governments prohibited gay people being served inShow MoreRelatedStonewall Riots Essay1549 Words   |  7 PagesThe Stonewall riots were a series of violent, spontaneous demonstrations by members of the LGBT community against a police raid that took place in the early m orning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn. Riots, violence and discrimination are not things that the LGBT community are unfamiliar with. Their history has been painted with opposition and resiliency. As time has progressed, so has the community and their fight for equality. The community is a medley of very different people from aRead MoreSocial Media And Social Movements1190 Words   |  5 PagesSmall Change: Why the Revolution Will Not Be Tweeted identifies that internet activism is an instant frenzy that creates a brief impact but is not adequate enough to remain on its own. When media is used as an intellectual resource for activism it can expose people s conscious about diverse predicaments or movements occurring around the globe. In today s contemporary society people had the power to create a significant change in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender (LGBT) community by having sameRead MoreLgbt History And The Modern Era1737 Words   |  7 Pagesthis. A major example would be the Stonewall riots. The Stonewall Riots were when police raided the Stonewall Inn, a popular gay bar in the Greenwich Village section of New York City. These type of raids were not unusual in the late 1960s, an era when homosexuality was illegal in nearly every state, excluding Illinois. The following night, the street erupted into violent protests and demonstrations that lasted for the six days. These riots marked a major turning point in the modern gay civil rights movementRead MoreThe Stonewall Riots Essay examples1957 Words   |  8 Pagesone’s homosexuality could lead to the loss of their family, their livelihood and, in some cases, their lives. Geanne Harwood, interviewed on an National Public Radio Broadcast commemorating the twentieth anniversary of the Stonewall Riots, said that â€Å"being gay before Stonewall was a very difficult proposition †¦ we felt that in order to survive we had to try to look and act as rugged and as manly as possib ly to get by in a society that was really very much against us.† The age of communist threatsRead MoreThe Views Of The Gay Rights Movement1712 Words   |  7 Pagesunique point of view of the life of a homosexual. Furthermore, the gay rights movement â€Å"is the effort to eliminate prejudice and discrimination against homosexual women and men† (Stoddard). 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Property Developments Julian - Sol and Daniel.

Questions: 1. What common law duty and statutory duty if any has Julian breached? 2. What common law or statutory duty have Sol and Daniel breached? 3. If the directors have breached their duties do any of them have a defence and if not what are the consequences for them? Answers: 1. Fiduciary duty of Loyalty Under the common law he director has been placed with a fiduciary duty. This duty includes the duty to act with grim loyalty to the company. Under the common law a director is a fiduciary of a company and it is expected that they will not enter into any transaction that they stand to benefit from or which they have an interest in. This basic common law duty was held in Aberdeen Railway Co v Blaikie Brothers (1854) where the court decided that a director should not take part in self dealing. The court further held that any transaction that is conducted by a director who has an interest in it shall be voidable and be terminated at the will of the company. Julian had a personal interest in the contract for the sale of land because his aim was not exonerate his uncle Gerald from the bank loan misery, although he did not stand to gain any material benefit. It can thus be conceded that Julian has breached this this common law duty. Duty to Avoid Conflict Pursuant to section 191(1) a director has been placed under a duty to void any material personal interstate in any in any issue that is related to the company affairs (Corporation Act 2001). This section requires that where there is such an interest, the director must disclose it by way of notice to other directors. It is evident that Julian did not disclose that he had a personal interest in the contract for the sale of land. In McGellin v Mount King Mining NL (1998) the court held that the test that is applied is whether a reasonable person will be convinced that the interest affected the judgment of the director. Julian was affected by the interest because he went on to vote for the decision during the board meeting. According S192(1) to notice of any personal interest must be in writing and be given during a directors meeting. The notice must explain suffieciently for the board of director to clearly understand the interest (Camelot Resources v MacDonald,1994). There has been no evidence that a notice has been supplied by Julian. Duty not to make improper use of information By dint of s183(1) a director must not obtain any information from the company for his own personal advantage or for the advantage of some else (Corporation Act 2001). In Commissioner for Corporate Affairs v Green (1978) the court insisted that the information must be used for the advantage of the director or someone else. It is evident that that Julian used information from the company to benefit his brother Raphael so that he may win the tender. This is contrary to the corporation act and Julian is thus in breached of the duty under s183 (1). 2. Duty of care Directors have the common law duty to exercise their responsibilities and duty with reasonable care and due diligence. In Daniels v AWA (1992) the court affirmed this common law duty by holding that the directors have the moral imperative to take reasonable measures to ensure that they oversee the operations activities of the company. In Australian Securities Commission v Gallagher (1993) the court held that the standard of care and skill that was expected was that of an ordinary person in the same position as the director. Sol and Daniel were reckless as to the fact they were required professionally to conduct an independent valuation and thus were in breach of the duty of skill and care expected of the directors. Duty to act with reasonable care and Due Diligence Pursuant to S180 (1) a director has been vested with the obligation to act with reasonable care and due diligence in a manner that any reasonable person would do (Corporation Act 2001). In ASIC v MacDonald (2009) the court held that the test that should be applied is an objective one where the question will be what an ordinary person who has the same professional experience and expertise as the defendant would do in the same circumstance. It has also been held that the standard of care is judged by what a prudent person would do in similar circumstances. Sol and Daniel expected to exercise skill and care in their duty to oversee the companys activities and they failed to do so. A reasonable and prudent person having an ordinary skill as is expected of them would have conducted an independent valuation of the land and would ensure that they are aware of all the operation of the company but they failed to do so and have not been keen with the operations of the company (Re City Equitabl e Fire Insurance Co, 1925). Furthermore, in Daniels v AWA (1992) the court insisted that the director of a company must keep himself informed of all activities and operation that go on in a company. It is imperative to note that the court in Vines v ASIC (2007) noted that common law application of the duty of care and due diligence is similar to the statutory application in Australia. 3. Consequences for Breach In law it is a general principle that ignorance of the law is not a defense and therefore the directors cannot claim innocent mistake because they did not know understand the legal position of the director duties. The only practical defense that would be applicable for the breach of section 191(1) would be that the director had given a sufficient notice of the conflict of interest but this has not been given by Julian. A breach of section S180 (1) on the duty of reasonable care and due diligence invites a civil penalty and a criminal liability 5 years imprisonment or fine of $200, 000. A breach pursuant to section 191(1) attracts a civil penalty of 10 units or an imprisonment of 3 months or both. If the breach of the duty of care causes a detriment to the company the director may be required to pay for the detriment caused or return any benefit that he has incurred to the company inform of damages. References Aberdeen Railway Co v Blaikie Brothers [1854] UKHL 1 ASIC v Macdonald (No 12) [2009] NSWSC Australian Securities Commission v Gallagher (1994) 11 WAR 105 AWA Ltd v Daniels (1992) 7 ACSR 759 Camelot Resources Ltd v MacDonald (1994) 14 ACSR 437 Corporate Affairs Commission v. Green [1978] VR 505 Corporation Act 2001 (cth) McGellin v Mount King Mining NL (1998) 144 FLR 228 Re City Equitable Fire Insurance Co [1925] Ch 407 Vines v ASIC [2007] NSWCA 75